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Best Practices for Translation/Localization
In today’s global environment, even the smallest of companies need to communicate across cultures and languages. Venturing into a fresh market often brings new challenges and problems. Your documents must be translated, your software adapted, your Web site globalized, and your products and services modified for specific locales. The key is to correctly understand the requirements of your non-English speaking customers and employees, then satisfy them.
Your Language and Culture Services Provider (LCSP) whomever it may be—in-house or outsourced or a combination thereof—should have a proven track record of supplying turnkey services and demonstrating best practices and ever-increasing levels of expertise and effectiveness, thereby providing added value in the areas of innovative cost savings and efficiencies.
These best practices were compiled to aid proactive enterprises and their staff, writers in particular, in the process of translation and localization.
Translation
The need for translation.
How important is your project and your image in your target market? Are you willing to risk making mistakes that could confuse and perhaps offend your target market? Do you understand the difference between a bilingual person and a professional translator? Even if you have professional multilingual support staff, there is no substitute for a professional translator. A professional translator has a command of written speech and all its stylistic and cultural nuances. For the proactive global enterprise, a translation/localization professional—whether in-house, off-shore, or outsourced—has become a necessity.
Options for translation professionals.
The first question to ask is should I bring the operations in-house, outsource them, move them offshore, or use a combination of these options? It is not an easy choice, and there are no hard-and-fast rules to guide your decision. Making an informed decision requires careful assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of each choice. Whatever your choice, the translation/localization/globalization service provider should.
» establish an ongoing relationship with you and your team.
» complete your project in a timely, accurate fashion, using the latest tools and technology.
» possess sufficient qualified resources to work in all the required languages.
» handle the required volume and turnaround time.
» have at their disposal professionals who are experts in your field or the type of document.
With your service provider, decide:
» whether terminology used for the target language(s) will be reused for future projects.
» whether translations are going to be invisible.
» whether an in-country review is possible and necessary. If so, determine when and how the review will be completed and who will perform it. You may also want to set up detailed guidelines for the review.
The best time to engage the services of professionals.
The days of translation as an afterthought are rapidly disappearing. This type of thinking led to practices that were ineffective, expensive, and prone to mistakes.
Ideally, you will integrate the authoring of your original monolingual documentation with the translation/localization process even before writing begins. Strive for an ongoing relationship with a language bureau that will coach you through the increasingly specialized writing process. Even if you have in-house professionals you might still need to outsource part of the services to make the best of your internal resources.
You may want to begin the translation process as quickly as possible, but be wary of using translators to work on draft documents. The more changes you make during the translation process, the more your costs will rise, and changes in a document mid-translation can result in inconsistencies and errors. Complete the source document before handing it over to translators. Planning ahead saves money and resources.
Cost.
Good translation is an investment and benefits your company. Language and cultural services should be part of your team, working with you to achieve your market objectives. Set a budget for language and cultural services that allows you to hire a service provider knowledgeable in your field, who will make you and your projects look good and with whom you can forge a long-term relationship. The more familiar the firm is with your field and your company, the more they can contribute to your success.
Technological Solutions.
Machine Translation (MT)
This is also referred to as automated translation. Under certain circumstances, one way to save money and/or time is by using machine translation. MT is useful for controlled source text in order to provide the reader with a general idea of the content of the source document. Be aware that machine translation is prone to errors and ambiguity. For important documents, and especially those that target the public, always use a professional human translator.
Translation Memory Services (TMS)
Translation volume can effectively be reduced by cross-leveraging existing translations using TMS across the enterprise. An added benefit is that your corporate lexicon can now be standardized and available for your future translations. If the TMS is integrated with your source language authoring team—through the use of Authoring Memory (AM), for example—the benefits are compounded as the translation workflow process will be seamless and efficient.
DITA
IBM uses the Darwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA)a tool that aids in the translation process. It was designed to employ the best practices of translation and localization. For example, it is topic-oriented and the writing style is such that content can easily be reused. This means that once a topic has been translated or localized, it need not be again. It has several other features too numerous to elaborate here, but it can be a good tool for companies looking to cut costs and increase efficiency in the translation and localization process.
Termbases
There are benefits to be gained by proactively managing terminology. Managed terminology is essential for improved quality, in addition to supplying productivity gains, cost savings, and an increased competitive edge. Termbases should be well planned. The different core technologies and tools available should be fully researched before a terminology management system is adopted. The needs of the terminology information end users should dictate the types of terminology data categories, the term selection criteria, the distribution mechanisms, and so forth. For localization purposes, for example, including a context is even more important than including a definition. And data categories, such as subject fields, subset values, product/project identifiers, and customer identifiers, are extremely important for business purposes.
Communication.
Keep the lines of communication with your translator open. A good translator will ask questions about audience, layout, and relevance. It’s to your benefit to provide answers. Since your translator is working so closely with your document, he or she may also have questions about sections that are unclear in the source text. Work with the translator to clarify those sections. It will mean a better translation and may improve your original document.
Be proactive. When engaging your translation service provider, make its job easier (and your end product better) by providing not only the source text, but also the origin of the text, the audience and locale it was written for, and when it was written. You might also consider providing reference materials and databases (see Terminology). Other areas to clarify with your translation service provider in advance, and often in writing, are:
» deadlines and the procedures for modifying those deadlines, if needed.
» measures for quality control—editing, proofreading, and employing a third-party reviewer to assess the document’s compatibility with the target readership.
» whether certification of the translation is required (this is usually requested for legal assignments).
» copyright issues. Usually, the requester holds the copyright on the translation, but it is not a bad idea to specify this as well as the copyright information on any reference materials provided.
» access to glossaries created with translation memory systems for future jobs.
» changes to the original work order It is good practice to keep a detailed record of modifications requested.
For global projects, you will use a Web-based project knowledge database so that all project participants can share information in real time. These collaboration and information portals allow all involved in a particular global project to share data and monitor progress as well as anticipate bottlenecks or delays.
Audience.
Before you send a document off to be translated, make sure you know what you want it to achieve—and then tell the translator. Word choice, sentence structure, tone, and even syntax may vary depending on who will read the document and what its objectives are.
Is it an instructional manual? An ad? A brochure for school children? What is the purpose of the translation—to persuade, inform, entertain? What type of text should the translator use? Text type can range from user manuals to a letter to poetry.
Also be sure that your translator knows the specifics about the intended readership. It is not enough to ask that a document be translated into Spanish. The translator needs to know if the reader is from Spain, Latin America, or Mexico. The translator should also be informed about the education and socioeconomic levels of the target audience. Word choice, as well as other conventions, vary depending on your target audience and region, so give your translator as much information as possible. If you work with the same translation service provider consistently, its staff will manage this information for you.
Familiarity.
How specialized is your company’s field? Is it highly technical, rife with jargon, and full of complex processes? The more specialized your field, the more important it is to hire translators who understand your subject. It’s also vital that you develop and nurture a relationship with your translation firm. Your goal is to ensure that your translation team understands your business as well as you do. The more familiar they are with your products, services, and company philosophy, the more valuable their translation work.
Editing.
Even the best translators make mistakes. Ideally, your translation service provider will have a two-step editing process. One editor compares the target text to the source text and verifies that the target text is consistent with the source text. A second editor reads the target text without referring to the source text and evaluates the document’s readability and lucidity. Some companies also employ a third-party reviewer to assess the completed project, evaluating whether the objectives have been met and appraising the target document’s compatibility with the target audience.
Proofreading.
Proofreading is not a replacement for editing. A proofreader checks for spelling, punctuation, and formatting errors. Proofreading is often the final step in the translation process.
If you make any changes to the translated documents (e.g. having multilingual staff member insert headings or captions), ask the translating service provider to proofread the final product. This could save you from embarrassing mistakes in an otherwise professional document.
If the translation service provider is not handling the formatting or printing of the document, it is a good idea to have your translation firm or a native-speaking staff member proofread the formatted document. Small errors in typographical conventions (such as the omission of an accent mark) can result in big differences in meaning.
Localization.
Translation is only one aspect of localization. Adaptation of your products and services information to the target region—or locale—including cultural aspects, your Web site, and computer software is yet another. The localization process involves customizing all information, forms, drawings, dates, currencies, numbers, colors, symbols, icons, graphics, and more to the targeted world region. Testing and desktop publishing may be part of the process as well. The end product looks and feels as though it belongs locally without any “noise” that would distract the audience from the intended message or discourage use of the product or service.
Phone Numbers.
Use a local number if at all possible. Your 1-800 number may not work halfway across the world. If you cannot use local numbers, be sure to provide the country code so that callers may dial internationally.
Format of Printed Documents.
When you’re ready to go to print, be aware that depending on what language the document is translated into, text size may differ. European languages take up more space than languages like Chinese or Korean. Use different formats or be prepared to rearrange uniform formats to account for white space or to allow for expansion (see Text Expansion).
Cultural Concerns.
The last thing you want to do is offend your target audience with your product, brand, or advertising. Avoid using body parts and human figures, animals, and colors during the localization process. Cultural meanings and taboos vary widely. Political and religious references should also be avoided.
Representations of flags and maps may also create problems during localization. Recently, McDonalds decided to use flags of various countries on its food packaging. The company ran into problems when some patrons objected to seeing their flag on packaging that would end up in the trash. Maps can also be a source of contention, especially in areas where territory is in dispute. Avoid using them. Finally, keeping the localization process in mind, do not use names of places that people in other countries won’t recognize or be able to relate to.
On Backward Translations or Re-translations.
Some companies engage in the practice of translating a translation back into English in order to check accuracy. Unfortunately, this is not an accurate quality control method in that judging a re-translation from a different culture might not provide the desired outcome. The truth is that there is no substitute for the review of a professional from a qualified bureau.
Your Web site.
With the proliferation of the Internet around the world, your global Web presence is more important than ever. In order for your Web site to be most effective, it should be tailored to local markets. It’s been shown that the large majority of Internet users prefers to be addressed in their native languages; therefore, the demand for true multilingual Web sites is on the rise.
Every Web site is a global Web site. Even small businesses require several languages to convey their message and effectively reach a global audience. This is so for the smallest U.S. companies that want to attract the Hispanic market or any of the other speakers of the many languages within the U.S. The neighborhood florist could process an order from Japan if anyone is ready to take it.
The goal of a large multinational enterprise is to develop and implement the best possible communication management systems. The ideal system is a mix of technological innovations and proven basic business standards.
Search Engine Optimization (SEO)
What is the benefit of a localized portal if it isn’t found by search engines? After all, search engines are a primary source of Web traffic. One way to optimize representation on search engines is to have an editorial policy in place for frequent updates and additions to existing Web site content. Search engines continually index new content, and visitors look forward to new material as well.
Web Content Management Systems (WCMS)
WCMS centralize and allow for proper planning and development of multilingual portals. In order to ensure that your Web site information is translated accurately, you should prepare it for translation. Identify content that will change on your servers or databases, then decide whether or not to deploy this information internationally, translate it, or translate and localize it.
You can also prepare your information for translation and localization by choosing content creation tools that accommodate a range of languages and textual characters. You should also separate information from executable code.
There are many additional strategies for dealing successfully with global multilingual Web sites, but those are beyond the scope of this short outline. The most important concept to understand is that the requirements, design, and maintenance of multilingual Web sites are different from those of monolingual ones. Your LCSP should be able to walk you through the Web site localization process. At a minimum, your Web site will need to be translated, and the translation costs can be reduced by implementing a content reuse process across Web sites. Further, be certain that your Web site uses the Unicode Standard (www.unicode.org). If the system is not Unicode-friendly, it will have problems handling foreign languages.
Computer Applications.
There are several issues to consider when localizing computer applications. Many potential problems can be avoided at the design stage.
Format
Choose your encoding format carefully. You want to have your application architects use formats that are internationalized in order to avoid problems when localizing specific aspects of the application.
Text Expansion
One of the most common problems is that of text expansion—the expansion of English source text when translated into other languages. In order to minimize difficulties, avoid placing text inside cells, boxes, or tables. When text inside boxes is translated it can increase the length of the text inside the box, which then affects appearance, page breaks, and may even make files larger, resulting in longer upload and download times. Consider font size as well. Fonts may appear different depending on language and some languages require bigger font sizes for legibility.
A general guideline is to allow 30% additional space for horizontal expansion, though more room may be required. Texts with 20 characters or fewer can require 100% to 200% more space and even texts with 21 to 70 characters often require 50% to 100% additional space.
Text Messages
Text messages can often create difficulties during the localization process. As with your written documents, having writers, or in this case application architects, follow a few guidelines will make translation and localization easier. Have application architects use complete sentences in text messages and create multiple messages, depending on the situation. Situational messages may be easier to translate later. Application architects should also avoid the use of slang or jargon and be aware that while English is written and read from left to right, some languages are written and read from right to left. Finally, application architects should create applications that allow for variable order and position. Substitution variables in sentences may change order and position when translated from English into another language.
Text Embedded in Graphics
Another problem during the localization process is the practice of embedding text within illustrations. In order for the text to be translated, it must be extracted from the illustration, translated, and then pasted back in. This is a time-consuming process and there are many opportunities for error. When possible, have application architects place text outside of illustrations, diagrams, and artwork.
Dates and Times
Application architects must also be careful when creating components for the input of dates and times. The United States uses the mm/dd/yy format, while many other countries use the dd/mm/yy format. Applications should be flexible. Similarly, AM and PM are denoted differently in languages other than English. Applications that will need to be localized should be adaptable to these types of changes.
Lastly, application architects should take the type of calendar used into consideration. Applications should be flexible enough to facilitate the localization to the calendar type used in the target locale.
Graphics
Keep in mind that icons are not universal, and pictures and symbols may have different meanings in different cultures. Similarly, avoid displays of flags and maps on your Web site (see Cultural Concerns above). Graphics must also be flexible in design because paper standards vary by country and region. In the United States, 8.5x11 inch paper is standard. In the UK, A4 paper (210mm x 297mm) is standard. When creating an image, make certain it looks good on all paper sizes.
Tips for Writers of Source Documents.
As the business world becomes more global, new challenges arise. One new issue is offshoring. Companies offshore writing tasks because they can save money by doing so. Unfortunately, offshore writers are generally not writing in their native language, which has resulted in more inaccuracies. Perhaps a better way to cut costs would be for writers to take into account the translation requirements during the authoring process. By introducing new processes, using technology, and revising the information workflow to link the authoring and translation processes, you can save money and improve quality.
So what approach generates easily translated text? One approach is that of controlled authoring of source text. This is achieved by taking time to create a good source document. Simply by realizing that your text will be translated, you are ahead of many, and by reading the advice that follows, you will be ahead of many more.
Your Source Document.
It is not unusual for translators to find errors in the source text, which then need to be presented to the client for correction before the translation can proceed. Mistakes often include errors in punctuation or misuses of easily mistaken words, like accept/except and affect/effect. This revision process is time consuming and costly. Writers need to be extra careful when writing for a global audience. The better the quality of the source document, the easier and less costly the translation process will be.
Translation clients often underestimate the compounded impact that even the smallest inconsistencies in the source document can cause to the multi-language project and the unforeseen consequences that may be triggered elsewhere in the translations. Companies that want to save on translation costs will benefit by investing in the authoring process of originals. Progressive companies will start even earlier with proper planning, coordinating their authoring systems with multilingual translation and localization processes early on. In authoring source documents with translation in mind, a writer may better construct content that allows for easier and faster translation and that is also more consistent with the original source document’s intent.
Consider the electronic creation of your document as well. Not all electronic files work well with foreign languages and translation memory programs. In addition, some practices—like placing words on artwork—may cost extra. Consult with your translation service provider as to which file and layout types are most cost efficient.
Controlled Authoring (CA) is a set of writing guidelines that can be used quickly and easily in almost any business writing environment. CA is a set of rules in which language is tightly controlled for the purpose of preparing text for translation, machine or otherwise. Its main goal is to ensure that the maximum amount of text is available for reuse, which, in turn, lowers translation costs.
Writing for reuse is most applicable for situations where a large number of similar documents, such as user manuals, training information, technical documents relating to product repair and maintenance, and pharmaceutical documentation must be translated.
In CA, writers should follow four main guidelines.
1. ) Separate content—Split changing content from unchanging content into separate paragraphs. When changing and non-changing content is not separated, the segment cannot be reused without further editing. Each edit creates additional translation work. For example, say your company produces three different printer models. You may need to produce several documents about these printers—user manuals, product descriptions, marketing literature—and each of these documents may need to be translated. If your authors separate the content about the printers that does not change from the content about the specific models that does, the translation will be more efficient and less costly. The unchanging text segments can be reused in another document and only the changing content will need to be translated.
2. ) Standardize text—standardizing text means eliminating product-specific information as much as possible when a document is written. Let’s think about those printers again. If your writers eliminate model numbers and names from printer descriptions that cover all the models, then the standardized text can be translated and reused without further edits.
3. ) Simplify text—writers should make an effort to put aside flowery language and write clear, concise sentences. Language should be direct and unambiguous.
4. ) Reduce text—sentences should be kept short and to the point. Considering that wordiness increases the cost of translation, document size, and printing, authors should strive to express ideas in as few words as possible.
Authoring Memory (AM)
Reusing previously written information segments is one way to ensure that writers are consistent. As previously noted, it’s faster and more cost-effective to reuse material than to write new content. Before the advent of AM systems, authors who wanted to reuse material had to search databases or files for those segments which could be inefficient and time-consuming. An AM tool allows authors to access previously written material inside the authoring application easily and immediately.
Translation Memory (TM)
Another element associated with CA is a Translation Memory (TM) system. Because TMs help control translation costs, their use has become the norm. TMs are more effective when used in conjunction with reuse and AM tools.
Word Choice
Word choice is particularly important as words with multiple meanings can be difficult to translate. Writers should limit the use of idioms, puns, buzzwords, jargon, and other types of wordplay. These are difficult to translate and may cost you time and resources in rewrites. Even phrases familiar to Americans will confuse international readers; instead, use phrases that are appropriate for the intended audience.
Style
The tone of the document should be considered carefully. Compared to some languages, English is rather informal. Writers are encouraged to adopt a semiformal tone which is easier to translate and localize. In addition, writers should strive to keep sentences short and simple. Under 25 words is best. Eliminate unnecessary text and repetitive material. Negative constructions should also be avoided. For example, write “It is similar to the previous example” instead of “It is dissimilar to the previous example.”
When writing a list, make sure the list is complete on its own and the items are written as complete sentences or phrases. Use parallel structure with list items, and use a complete sentence to introduce the list.
Grammar and Mechanics
Writers should avoid
» the passive voice. Use the active voice and present tense.
» the use of infinitive, present participle, and past participle verb forms at sentence beginnings as they can be ambiguous.
» using compound phrases that are more than three words.
» complex sentences. But if they are used, do not omit “that” as it simplifies translation.
» using words in multiple grammatical categories. In English words often fit into more than one category. This is not the case in other languages.
» unclear coordination. The reader must be able to understand the relationship between the elements.
» structures that are not parallel. Words, phrases, and clauses should be equal grammatically.
» using too many prepositions. Do not omit necessary prepositions, rather rewrite the sentence.
» using the dash parenthetically.
» using a slash to mean and/or. Rewrite the sentence.
» forming plurals by adding (s). For example, rewrite “List your title(s)” as “List your titles.”
Authors should also use pronouns carefully. In many foreign languages, pronouns have gender, so using “them” without giving any context as to the gender of the referent can be problematic for translators. The English pronoun you can also be ambiguous. Not only does “you” have a singular and plural form in other languages, it may also take formal and informal forms. Limit ambiguity in the source document as much as possible.
Writers are also encouraged to pay careful attention to punctuation. The proper and clear use of punctuation in the source document makes for a better and more efficient (and thus less costly) translation.
Special Cases
Acronyms should be spelled out. If the full form of the acronym is not provided the translator has to research the acronym to determine the meaning of the abbreviation. This costs time and money. Another issue that may arise is the existence of an identical acronym in the target language. To avoid these problems, the full form of acronyms should be spelled out. Writers should also avoid contractions and abbreviations as these often do not translate well. This includes Latin abbreviations like “etc.” and “et al.” If you must use an abbreviation, define it the first time it is used.
Symbols are another special case. Do not refer to the # as “the pound sign.” Use the term “number symbol” and explain its use. Do not use an ampersand (&) for “and.” Write the word out.
Cultural References
In general, culturally specific references (sports, entertainment, humor, holidays) do not translate well. Even industry-specific terminology can be difficult to translate. If you can avoid using it, do so. If you want to keep culturally specific references, ask your translator if the reference will work when localized.
You should also discuss with your translation service provider whether to retain or localize culturally specific items like date formats, time formats, currency, units of measure, and proper names (see Cultural Concerns above).
Pictures
Consider using pictures and diagrams in lieu of words when they would simplify the translation. This particularly applies to complicated sets of directions, like those used in instruction manuals. Fewer words mean less translation costs.
Create a Glossary
To aid in the translation and localization of your documents, create a glossary of terms specific to your company and field. Your translation firm can also create one for you. Regular use of this glossary will ensure consistency is achieved in all translated documents and will save money on future translations.
Terminology
Writers should keep the terminology used in documents consistent, avoiding using two words for the same item or terms. Often this can create confusion in the translation because similar words in the source language may translate into two words with different meanings in the target language. Discuss with your translation service provider how you want them to deal with new words or those with multiple meanings. Prevent further translation difficulties by asking writers not to create new words when existing vocabulary is sufficient.
Make your translation service provider aware of any reference materials used in conjunction with your documents, including style guides and industry-specific resources. You should supply industry-specific resources when possible. These include documents on which the source is based or which are referenced in the source document, samples or pictures of the products mentioned in the document, and any other necessary resources, such as databases, parallel texts, and glossaries.
Software
If your translation project includes software as well as other supporting documents, have the software translated first. The same terms used in the software translation can then be applied to the supporting documents (see Create a Glossary).
Format
Consider providing your translation firm documents in read-write formats. Read-only formats, such as PDFs, mean that the translator cannot return the document to you in the same layout you provided. Additionally, the translator may have to describe where translated text should be placed in the document (below a caption or graph, for example) instead of simply placing it there during the translation.
File Preparation.
Good habits in file preparation can also ensure that the documents sent to be translated are error-free, thus avoiding costly rewrites and errors in translation.
» First of all, have authors regenerate automatically generated files before finalizing. It may be tempting to make manual corrections, but this can create consistency problems for the document as a whole.
» Secondly, when dealing with generated files, like tables of contents or indices, authors should be certain to correctly apply heading styles and index markers. Again, manually correcting these files without then correcting the heading or index marker inside the document may result in inconsistencies.
» Thirdly, authors who use Track Changes or hidden text in documents should remove these additions before sending the text to be translated. This may seem obvious, but often the author elects not to view the Track Changes and forgets they have been input. A translator may then assume that this text should also be translated.
» Finally, create and maintain a standard for naming and identifying documents. This can save time and effort for a translator dealing with a large volume of files.
Content Management Systems (CMS).
What is the most effective and efficient way to manage content? How do you track all the languages, words and changes made to documentation, and when and by whom are these changes made? How do you answer inquiries from potential non-English speaking customers expediently? How can you assure that your service or product feels as though it were designed in the local language and for the cultural region?
These are some of the issues created by the ever-increasing global market forces that the modern enterprise faces. Language and Culture Service Providers (LCSP) are developing answers for these issues using the latest technologies, interdisciplinary resources, and in-country experts around the globe.
Working in Global Teams.
The most successful global teams have developed trust. Cross-cultural teams must understand the way the culture of each team member works. Don’t forget to take into account different time zones. Constant and clear communication is the key to building trust. Successful global teams meet their commitments, act consistently, communicate openly and honestly, and give feedback, even uncomfortable feedback, early and directly.
Communicating Across Cultures by E-mail
There are a few considerations to keep in mind when sending global e-mails. The full narrative can be found here. The main points are in the use of appropriate tone, style, and clarity, as well as a basic understanding of cultural differences and similarities, and handling problems with sensitivity.
Towards an Ideal System.
For the proactive global enterprise, the need for a language and cultural support including translation/localization and a Global Content Manager, whether in-house or outsourced, has become a necessity. The manager or management team will need to be knowledgeable about current translation technologies; “data management/business process automation systems;” quality control and Content Management System (CMS) integration; TM products; and language translation workflow technologies, including Web portals. The benefits of Web-based applications in this industry are many as global teams can access the system in real time across time zones. The Global Content Manager will need to develop logically partitioned language translation databases for your departments; design and maintain the Web-based workflow solutions by directly updating the centralized database with integrated feedback; and integrate that feedback to your other business systems, including source content consistency systems.
What is next?
LCMaPS™ is an integration of essential Language and Cultural support services for the industry, it is centrally managed and integrated with your processes and goals. LCMaPS™ was developed by ABPT.
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